Description
List of Contributors xvii Preface xxi 1 Ecological Engineering and Ecosystem Services – Theory and Practice 1 Fbio Carvalho Nunes, Thas de Marchi Soares, Lander de Jesus Alves, Jos Rodrigues de Souza Filho, Cludia Cseko Nolasco de Carvalho, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Ecological Engineering: History and Definition 3 1.3 Ecosystem Services: History, Concepts, and Dimensions 7 1.3.1 Sizing Ecosystem Services 10 1.3.2 Agriculture and Ecosystem Services 15 1.4 Final Considerations: Challenges for the Future 19 Notes 20 References 20 2 Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering for Economic-Environmental Revitalization 25 Bruno Barbosa and Ana Lusa Fernando 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Revitalization of Physical/Environmental Factors 27 2.2.1 Low Temperature 27 2.2.2 Limited Soil Drainage and Shallow Rooting Depth 28 2.2.3 Unfavorable Texture and Stoniness 29 2.2.4 Sloping Areas 30 2.2.5 Dryness 30 2.2.6 Waterlogging 31 2.3 Revitalization of Chemical Factors 32 2.3.1 Acidity 32 2.3.2 Heavy Metals and Organic Contaminants 33 2.3.3 Salinity and Sodicity 34 2.4 Economic Revitalization of Degraded Soil Ecosystems 35 2.5 Conclusions 36 References 37 3 Environmental Issues and Priority Areas for Ecological Engineering Initiatives 47 Sanchayita Rajkhowa, Nazmun Ara Khanom, and Jyotirmoy Sarma 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Basic Concepts of Ecological Engineering 50 3.3 Practice and Implication of Ecological Engineering 53 3.4 Priority Areas for Ecological Engineering 54 3.4.1 Coastal Ecosystem Restoration 55 3.4.2 Mangrove Restoration 56 3.4.3 River and Wetland Restoration 57 3.4.4 Ecological Engineering in Soil Restoration and Agriculture 59 3.5 Conclusion 61 Notes 62 References 63 4 Soil Meso- and Macrofauna Indicators of Restoration Success in Rehabilitated Mine Sites 67 Sara Pelaez Sanchez, Ronan Courtney, and Olaf Schmidt 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Restoration to Combat Land Degradation 67 4.3 Mine Rehabilitation 68 4.3.1 Mine Tailings 68 4.3.2 Rehabilitation of Mine Tailings 68 4.3.3 The Challenge of Metal Mine Rehabilitation 68 4.4 Restoration Success Assessment: Monitoring Diversity, Vegetation, and Ecological Processes 69 4.4.1 Monitoring Diversity 70 4.4.2 Vegetation 70 4.4.3 Ecological Processes 71 4.5 Gaps in the Assessment of Restoration Success in Mine Sites 72 4.6 Increasing Restoration Success by Enhancing Soil Biodiversity and Soil Multifunctionality 73 4.7 Using Keystone Species and Ecosystem Engineers in Restoration 74 4.7.1 Earthworms 83 4.7.2 Ants 84 4.7.3 Termites 85 4.7.4 Collembola and Mites 85 4.8 Conclusions and Further Perspective for the Restoration of Metalliferous Tailings 85 Acknowledgements 86 References 86 5 Ecological Engineering and Green Infrastructure in Mitigating Emerging Urban Environmental Threats 95 Florin-Constantin Mihai, Petra Schneider, and Mihail Eva 5.1 Dimensions of Ecological Engineering in the Frame of Ecosystem Service Provision 95 5.2 Landfill Afteruse Practices Based on Ecological Engineering and Green Infrastructure 97 5.2.1 Old Landfill Closure and Rehabilitation Procedures 97 5.2.2 Landfill Restoration Examples Around the World 98 5.2.2.1 Conventional Landfill Closure (Campulung, Romania) 98 5.2.2.2 Elbauenpark Including Am Cracauer Anger Landfill (Magdeburg, Germany) 99 5.2.2.3 World Cup Park (Nanjido Landfill, Seoul, South Korea) 99 5.2.2.4 Fudekeng Environmental Restoration Park (Taiwan) 100 5.2.2.5 Hong Kong 100 5.2.2.6 Hyria Landfill Site (Tel Aviv, Israel) 101 5.2.2.7 Valdemingomez Forest Park (Madrid, Spain) 102 5.2.2.8 Freshkills Park – A Mega Restoration Project in the US 103 5.3 Role of Ecological Engineering in Transforming Brownfields into Greenfields 104 5.3.1 UGI Options for Brownfield Recycling 107 5.3.2 Pilot Case: Restoration of a Brownfield to Provide ES – Albert Railway Station (Dresden, Germany) Transformation into the Weieritz Greenbelt 107 5.4 Green Infrastructures for Mitigating Urban Transport-Induced Threats 112 5.4.1 Transportation Heritage from the Industrial Period 112 5.4.2 The Cases of the Rose Kennedy Greenway and Cheonggyecheon River Restoration 113 5.4.2.1 The Concept: Expressway-to-Greenway Conversion 113 5.4.2.2 Environmental Efficiency and Effectiveness 114 5.4.2.3 Social Impact 116 5.4.2.4 Economic Efficiency 116 5.5 Conclusions 117 References 118 6 Urban Environmental Issues and Mitigation by Applying Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 123 Shailendra Yadav, Suvha Lama, and Atya Kapley 6.1 Urbanization 123 6.2 Global Trends of Urbanization and Its Consequences 124 6.3 Urban Environmental Issues 125 6.3.1 Physical Urban Environmental Issues 126 6.3.1.1 Urban Heat Islands 126 6.3.1.2 Urban Flooding 127 6.3.1.3 Urban Pollution (Air, Water, Noise) and Waste Management 128 6.3.2 Biological Urban Environmental Issues 130 6.3.2.1 Declining Urban Ecosystem Services Due to Loss of Biodiversity 130 6.3.2.2 Increasing Disease Epidemiology 131 6.4 Ecosystem Engineering 133 6.5 Approaches for Mitigation of Urban Environmental Issues 134 6.5.1 Nature-Based Solutions 134 6.5.1.1 Green Infrastructure (GI) 134 6.5.1.2 Urban Wetlands and Riparian Forests 136 6.5.1.3 Solar Energy 136 6.5.2 Artificial Engineering Approaches 137 6.5.3 Landfill Gas as an Alternative Source of Energy: Waste to Wealth 137 6.5.3.1 Wastewater/Sewage Treatment Plants as Sources of Energy 137 6.5.3.2 Rainwater Harvesting 137 6.5.3.3 Constructed Floating Islands for Water Treatment 138 6.5.3.4 Microgrids 138 6.6 Future Perspective 138 Acknowledgments 139 References 139 7 Soil Fertility Restoration, Theory and Practice 147 V. Matichenkov and E. Bocharnikova 7.1 Introduction 147 7.2 Materials and Methods 148 7.3 Results 149 7.4 Discussion and Conclusions 151 Acknowledgment 155 References 155 8 Extracellular Soil Enzymes Act as Moderators to Restore Carbon in Soil Habitats 159 Rupinder Kaur and Anand Narain Singh 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 161 8.3 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) 162 8.4 Soil Carbon Sequestration 162 8.5 Extracellular Soil Enzymes 164 8.6 Interactive Role of Extracellular Soil Enzymes in Soil Carbon Transformation 166 8.6.1 Cellulase 167 8.6.2 -Glucosidase 169 8.6.3 Invertase 170 8.6.4 Amylase 170 8.6.5 Xylanase 171 8.7 Conclusion 172 References 172 9 Ecological Engineering for Solid Waste Segregation, Reduction, and Resource Recovery – A Contextual Analysis in Brazil 183 Lus P. Azevedo, Fernando G. da Silva Arajo, Carlos A.F. Lagarinhos, Jorge A.S. Tenrio, Denise C.R. Espinosa, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad 9.1 Introduction 183 9.2 Municipal Solid Waste in Brazil 188 9.3 Compostable Waste 189 9.4 Anaerobic Digestion 190 9.5 Recycling 190 9.6 Burning Waste Tires 190 9.7 Energy Recovery 191 9.8 Coprocessing Industrial Waste in Cement Kilns 192 9.9 Conclusions 193 References 195 10 Urban Floods and Mitigation by Applying Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 201 Jyotirmoy Sarma and Sanchayita Rajkhowa 10.1 Sustainable Ecosystems through Engineering Approaches 201 10.2 Flooding and, Specifically, Urban Flooding as a Problem of Interest 202 10.3 Causes and Impacts of Urban Flooding 204 10.4 Protection Against and Mitigation of Urban Flooding in the Context of Sustainability 207 10.4.1 Living with Floods as a Sustainable Approach 208 10.4.2 Urban Flood Risk Management 208 10.4.3 Integrated and Interactive Flood Management 209 10.4.4 Structural and Nonstructural Measures for Flood Control 210 10.4.5 River and Wetland Restoration 211 10.4.6 Low Impact Development (LID) and Best Management Practices (BMPs) 214 10.5 Conclusions and Future Scope 215 References 216 11 Ecological Engineering and Restoration of Mine Ecosystems 219 Marcin Pietrzykowski 11.1 Background and Definitions 219 11.2 Ecological Criteria for Successful Mine Site Restoration 222 11.3 Examples of Reclamation Technology and Afforestation in Mining Areas 223 11.4 Selected Reclamation Practices Versus Mining Extraction and Environmental Conditions 226 11.5 Final Comments and Remarks 227 References 228 12 Ecological Restoration of Abandoned Mine Land: Theory to Practice 231 Jitendra Ahirwal and Subodh Kumar Maiti 12.1 Introduction 231 12.2 Integration of Ecology Theory, Restoration Ecology, and Ecological Restoration 233 12.2.1 Disturbance 233 12.2.2 Succession 233 12.2.3 Fragmentation 233 12.2.4 Ecosystem Functions 233 12.2.5 Restoration 233 12.2.6 Reclamation 234 12.2.7 Rehabilitation 234 12.2.8 Regeneration 234 12.2.9 Recovery 234 12.3 Restoration Planning 235 12.4 Components of Restoration 236 12.4.1 Natural Processes 236 12.4.2 Physical and Nutritional Constraints 236 12.4.3 Species Diversity 237 12.5 Afforestation of Mine-Degraded Land 237 12.5.1 Miyawaki Planting Methods 237 12.6 Methods of Evaluating Ecological Restoration Success 239 12.6.1 Criteria for Restoration Success 239 12.6.2 Indicator Parameters of a Restored Ecosystem 240 12.6.3 Soil Quality Index 241 12.7 Development of a Post-Mining Ecosystem: A Case Study in India 242 12.8 Conclusions and Future Research 244 References 245 13 Wetland, Watershed, and Lake Restoration 247 Bhupinder Dhir 13.1 Introduction 247 13.2 Renovation of Wastewater 247 13.2.1 Physical Methods 248 13.2.2 Chemical Methods 248 13.2.3 Biological Methods 248 13.2.4 Other Methods 249 13.3 Restoration of Bodies of Water 250 13.3.1 Watersheds 251 13.3.2 Wetlands 252 13.3.2.1 Methods of Restoring Wetlands 253 13.3.3 Rivers 253 13.3.4 Lakes 254 13.3.5 Streams 254 13.3.6 Case Studies 255 13.4 Problems Encountered in Restoration Projects 255 13.5 Conclusion 256 References 256 14 Restoration of Riverine Health: An Ecohydrological Approach -Flow Regimes and Aquatic Biodiversity 261 S.P. Biswas 14.1 Introduction 261 14.2 Habitat Ecology 261 14.2.1 Riverine Habitats 262 14.2.2 Linked Ecosystems 262 14.3 Riverine Issues 262 14.3.1 Bank Erosion, Siltation, and Aggradations of Rivers 263 14.3.2 Deforestation in Catchment Areas 264 14.3.3 River Pollution and Invasive Species 266 14.3.4 Fishing Pressure 266 14.3.5 Status of Wetlands (FPLs) 267 14.3.6 Regulated Rivers and Their Impacts 267 14.4 Ecorestoration of River Basins 268 14.4.1 Environmental Flow 268 14.4.2 Success Story of a Conservation Effort for Aquatic Fauna 268 14.4.2.1 River Dolphins 268 14.4.2.2 Hilsa Fishery 270 14.4.3 Biomonitoring of Riverine Health and Ecosystem Engineering 270 14.4.4 Integrated River Basin Management 271 14.5 Summary and Conclusion 273 Acknowledgments 274 References 274 15 Ecosystem Services of the Phoomdi Islands of Loktak, a Dying Ramsar Site in Northeast India 279 Sijagurumayum Geetanjali Devi, Niteshwori Thongam, Maibam Dhanaraj Meitei, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad 15.1 What Are Ecosystem Services? 279 15.2 Phoomdi Islands of Loktak 279 15.3 Ecosystem Degradation of Loktak 280 15.4 Ecosystem Services Provided by the Phoomdi Islands of Loktak 284 15.5 Phoomdi and Provisioning Services 284 15.6 Phoomdi as Reservoirs of Biodiversity 287 15.7 Phoomdi and Fisheries 288 15.8 Phoomdi and Cultural Services 288 15.9 Phoomdi and Regulating Services 289 15.10 Phoomdi and Supporting Services 289 15.11 Conclusion 290 Acknowledgments 291 References 291 16 The Application of Reefs in Shoreline Protection 295 Anu Joy and Anu Gopinath 16.1 General Introduction 295 16.2 Types of Coral Reefs 296 16.3 Global Distribution of Coral Reefs 296 16.4 Benefits of Coral Reefs 296 16.5 Threats to Coral Reefs 298 16.5.1 Global Threats 298 16.5.1.1 Ocean Acidification 299 16.5.1.2 Coral Bleaching 299 16.5.1.3 Cyclones 300 16.5.2 Local Threats 300 16.5.2.1 Over-Fishing and Destructive Fishing Methods 300 16.5.2.2 Coastal Development 300 16.5.2.3 Recreational Activities 300 16.5.2.4 Sedimentation 300 16.5.2.5 Coral Mining and Harvesting 300 16.5.2.6 Pollution 301 16.5.2.7 Invasive Species 301 16.6 Important Coral Reefs of the World 301 16.7 The Application of Reefs in Shoreline Protection 303 16.7.1 Coral Reefs 304 16.7.2 Oyster Reefs 307 16.7.3 Artificial Reefs 307 16.7.4 Coral Reef Restoration 308 16.7.5 Oyster Reef Restoration 309 16.8 Conclusion 310 References 310 17 Mangroves, as Shore Engineers, Are Nature-Based Solutions for Ensuring Coastal Protection 317 Ajanta Dey, J.R.B. Alfred, Biswajit Roy Chowdhury, and Udo Censkowsky 17.1 Introduction 317 17.2 Sundarban: A Case Study 318 17.3 Restoration Models 319 17.4 Methodology 320 17.5 Results and Analysis 326 17.6 Conclusion 329 Acknowledgments 330 References 331 18 Forest Degradation Prevention Through Nature-Based Solutions: An Indian Perspective 333 Purabi Saikia, Akash Nag, Rima Kumari, Amit Kumar, and M.L. Khan 18.1 Introduction 333 18.2 Causes of Forests Degradation and Present Status Forests in India 335 18.3 Effects of Forest Degradation 338 18.4 Forest Degradation Management Strategies 339 18.5 Policies for Preventing Forest Degradation 339 18.6 Ecological Engineering: A Tool for Restoration of Degraded Forests 341 18.7 Forest Landscape Restoration: A Nature-Based Solution 342 18.8 Success Stories of ER from India 342 18.9 Yamuna Biodiversity Park 343 18.10 Ecological Restoration in Corbett National Park 343 18.11 Conclusion and Recommendations 345 References 345 19 Restoring Ecosystem Services of Degraded Forests in a Changing Climate 353 Smita Chaudhry, Gagan Preet Singh Sidhu, and Rashmi Paliwal 19.1 Introduction 353 19.2 Role of Forests in Maintaining Ecological Balance and Providing Services 354 19.2.1 Forests and Rainfall 355 19.2.2 Forests and Carbon Sequestration 355 19.2.3 Forests and Climate 356 19.2.4 Forests and Soil Erosion 356 19.2.5 Forest and Water Quality 357 19.3 Types of Forests in India 357 19.4 Forest Degradation 357 19.4.1 Invasive Alien Species 360 19.4.2 Forest Fires 361 19.4.3 Overpopulation and Exploitation of Forest Resources 361 19.4.4 Overgrazing 361 19.5 Impacts of Forest Degradation 362 19.5.1 Carbon Sequestration 362 19.6 Nutritional Status of Soil 362 19.7 Hydrological Regimes 362 19.8 Ecological Services 363 19.9 Social Implications 363 19.10 Methods for Restoring and Rehabilitating Forests 364 19.11 Conclusion 367 References 368 20 Forest Degradation Prevention 377 Marta Jaskulak and Anna Grobelak 20.1 Introduction 377 20.2 The Problem of Forest Degradation 379 20.3 Assessing Levels of Forest Degradation 380 20.4 Drivers of Forest Degradation 382 20.4.1 Strategies to Address Causes of Forest Degradation 382 20.4.2 The Hierarchy of Land Degradation Responses 383 20.5 The Role of Forest Management in Degradation Prevention 384 20.5.1 Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) for Prevention of Degradation and the Restoration of Degraded Areas 385 20.6 Conclusions – Prioritization and Implementation 387 References 387 21 Use of Plants for Air Quality Improvement 391 Richa Rai, Madhoolika Agrawal, and S.B. Agrawal 21.1 Introduction 391 21.2 Current Status of Air Pollutants 392 21.3 Green Roofs, Urban Forests, and Air Pollution 393 21.4 Traits for Phytoremediation of Air Pollution 397 21.4.1 Physiological and Biochemical Traits 398 21.5 Conclusions 400 References 400 22 Phylloremediation for Mitigating Air Pollution 405 Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad 22.1 Introduction 405 22.2 Significance of Tree Canopy Architecture and Types of Canopies for Mitigating Air Pollution 407 22.3 Air-Improving Qualities of Plants 414 22.3.1 Dust-Capturing Mechanisms Using Plants 414 22.3.2 Environmental Factors for Efficient Dust Capture by Plants 414 22.3.2.1 Light Intensity 414 22.3.2.2 Moisture 414 22.3.2.3 Wind Velocity 414 22.4 Effects of Vegetation on Urban Air Quality 414 22.4.1 Interception and Absorption of Pollution 414 22.4.2 Temperature Effects 416 22.4.3 Impact on Energy Use 416 22.5 Urban Air Quality Improvement through Dust-Capturing Plant Species 416 Acknowledgments 417 References 417 23 Green Belts for Sustainable Improvement of Air Quality 423 S.B. Chaphekar, R.P. Madav, and Seemaa S. Ghate 23.1 Introduction 423 23.2 Tolerance of Plants to Air Pollutants 424 23.2.1 Agro-Climates in India 425 23.2.2 Green Belts 426 23.2.3 Choosing Plant Species 427 23.2.4 Designing Green Belts 427 23.2.4.1 Ground-Level Concentration (GLC) of Emitted Pollutants 427 23.2.4.2 Mathematical Model 429 23.2.4.3 Two Approaches 430 23.2.4.4 Planting Along Roadsides 430 23.2.4.5 Choice of Plants for Roadsides 431 23.2.4.6 Nurturing Green Belts 431 23.3 Conclusion 433 References 433 24 Air Quality Improvement Using Phytodiversity and Plant Architecture 437 D.N. Magana-Arachchi and R.P. Wanigatunge 24.1 Introduction 437 24.2 Phytodiversity 438 24.3 Plant Architecture 438 24.3.1 Leaf Architecture – Regulation of Leaf Position 439 24.3.2 Development of Internal Leaf Architecture 439 24.4 Phytoremediation 440 24.4.1 Role of Plants During Particulate Matter and Gaseous Phytoremediation 440 24.4.2 Ways of Improving Air Quality 442 24.4.2.1 Outdoor Air Pollutants 442 24.4.2.2 Indoor Air Pollutants 444 24.4.2.3 Phyllosphere Microorganisms 444 24.5 Conclusion 446 Acknowledgment 446 References 446 25 Information Explosion in Digital Ecosystems and Their Management 451 Chanchal Kumar Mitra and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad 25.1 Introduction 451 25.1.1 Digital Computers 452 25.1.2 Modern Architectures for Computer Systems 452 25.1.3 Microprocessors 454 25.1.4 Networks of Computers 454 25.1.5 Development of Databases 455 25.1.6 Data as Knowledge 456 25.2 Growth 456 25.2.1 Traditional Models for Growth 456 25.2.2 Growth Curves 457 25.2.3 Limits of Growth 458 25.2.4 Growth vs. Life 459 25.3 Sustainability 459 25.3.1 Production vs. Consumption 459 25.4 Knowledge vs. Information 460 25.5 Circulation of Information 460 25.6 Quality vs. Quantity 461 25.6.1 Case Study 1: Facebook and Cambridge Analytica Scandal 461 25.6.2 Case Study 2: Aarogya Setu Mobile App by National Informatics Centre (NIC) of the GoI 462 25.7 How Does the Digital Ecosystem Work? 462 25.7.1 Digital Ecosystem and Sustainable Development 463 25.7.2 SDG 4: Quality Education 465 25.7.3 SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth 465 25.7.4 SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure 465 25.7.5 SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities 466 25.7.6 SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production 466 25.8 Conclusions 466 References 466 26 Nanotechnology in Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 469 L.R. Sendanayake, H.A.D.B. Amarasiri, and Nadeesh M. Adassooriya 26.1 Ecology, Ecosystem, and Ecosystem Engineering 469 26.2 Nanomaterials, Nanotechnology, and Nanoscience 469 26.3 Nanotechnology in Ecological and Ecosystem-Engineering 470 26.4 Nanotechnology to Remediate Environmental Pollution 470 26.5 Environmental Remediation 471 26.6 Surface Water Remediation 471 26.6.1 Adsorption 472 26.6.2 Photocatalysis 473 26.6.3 Disinfection 474 26.6.4 Nanomembranes 475 26.7 Groundwater Remediation and Soil Remediation 475 26.8 Air Remediation 478 26.9 Future Scope of Nanotechnology and Nanoscience in Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 479 References 480 Index 487
